Cloning of Mammals 5.19

1. Dolly will be cloned and its clone will be genetically identical to it. 
2. To obtain genetic information, a cell would have to be removed from clone 1. 
3. the nucleus of the cell contains all the genetic information of the animal. 
4. From clone 2, we get the egg cell which tends to divide. 
5. However, we do not want the genetic information in clone 2's case therefore we take it out (enucleate it). 
6. We take the cell with the genetic info which we do wish to copy and the cell which wants to divide, and fuse them together. 
7. Now we have the genetic info and the cell which wants to divide. 

5.14 Humulin

1. we are looking at the production of human insulin in a fermenter. 
2. In 5.13b we saw how this bacterial cell here has been transformed by the addition of recombinat DNA
3. The black circle represents the plasmid DNA 
4. Th yellow dot represents the human insulin gene

1. A culture, a large population, of these bacteria will be injected into the fermenter 
2. It will be necessary to provide this culture nutrients, control the temp and pH and gases in the fermenting chamber. 
3. By creating these optimal temperature for bacterial growth we will see population increase and we will see the bacteria switch on the insulin gene and manufacture the protein insulin.  
4. The bacteria inside the fermenter will manufacture the insulin protein from the nutrients provided (amino acids).
5. It will then be necessary to remove the product and carry out purification of the insulin. 
6. Downstream processing is used to purify the insulin for human consumption. 
7. The genetically engineered insulin is called humulin

5.9 Fish farming

1. Fish are an attractive product for farmers as they have low fat and high protein. 
2. Fish efficient at turning their nutrient into fish mass 

Advantages of fish farming 

1. fish farming will allow us to control the quality of water.
2. We can control predators
3. we can reduce pests and other forms of disease. 
4. By controlling all the factors above we're contributing to an increase in a yield of fish. 

disadvantages: 

1. However when you have a high density of fish the possibility is for the transmission of disease. 
2. because of this some farmers take antibiotics which is of concern to human health. 
3. the abundance within the fish farm, makes pests common therefore farmers use pesticides. This also is harmful to humans. 

5.4b Biological control

1. In Australia the prickly pair cactus of north america was introduces to garden which escaped into the countryside and the prickly pair cactus flourished under the Australian climate. 
2. However, it started taking up a lot of the agricultural land therefore it was important to get rid of it. 
3. An alien species, a moth (cactoblastis), was introduced, which feeds on the cactus. This moth had no competitors and therefore it was able to eat away at the cactus and remove it from the land. 
4. This is an example of controlling the pest. In this case, the cactus is the pest, which is eaten away by the herbivore. This is called biological control. In this case, we're not using pesticides.
5. Advantages of biological controls: 
1. No toxic chemicals involved means it has less impact on man or on wildlife.
6. Disadvantages 
1. Not a 100 percent effective 
2. There is always a danger that the introduced species will find an alternative prey on which to feed and will not die out once the pest is removed therefore it is difficult to control.
3. It is difficult to match a predator to the prey. you can;t actually find a suitable predatory herbivorous animal to remove your pest. 

5.4 pest control

1. monoculture- a large field of crops all of the same type. eg fields of rice, potatoes. 
2. when we have a monocuture they tend to be very susceptible to pests. 
3. pests use the crop as their own food source. In doing so, it reduces the productivity in farming. E.g. loss of food and financial impact on the farmer.
4. To overcome this, you should use pesticides (chemicals)
5. Advantages of using pesticides: 
1. pesticides kill pests
2. They are easy to obtain because they are chemicals 
3. They are easy to apply 
4. They are very effective 
6. Disadvantages: 
1. Many of these chemicals present in pesticides are  very toxic therefore they will kill other plants and animals other than the pests. They can also be harmful to humans 
2. bioaccumilation- pesticide builds up in the food chain and builds problems for animals in the higher trophic levels. 
3. Mutation in the pests often leads to resistance therefore the pesticide must be applied in higher concentration, it is more toxic or it no longer works. 

5.3 Fertilisers

1. We're looking at the Use of fertilisers to increase crop yield 
2. Lets say we have a plant and we want to increase the growth of the plant. This is achieved by farming by the application of fertilisers to the soil and these normally take the form of nitrates or phosphates. 
3. These compounds go down into the soil and are taken up in the root structure and then moved in the transpiration stream up to the leaf and used in the leaf for the construction of proteins (nitrates) or DNA/ membrane structure (phosphates). 

1. fertilisers can be divides into two groups, organic and artificial fertilisers. 
2. Organic group are produced from animal waste on farms. this usually takes the form of cow faeces. 
3. the faeces go through the process of decomposition and fermentation and forms a substance known as slurry. This is applied to the field, giving the crop plant a supply of nitrate and phosphate to promote growth. 
4. The artificial fertilisers take the form of chemicals which are synthetically produced. Two well known ones are potassium nitrate and ammonium nitrate. They will go into solution in the soil water once applied to the fields.
5. This will release nitrates which will also promote growth. 
6. eutrofication occurs due to the use of artificial fertilisers. 

5.2 Crop Yield

1. We're looking at the increase of crop yields due to higher levels of carbon dioxide and higher temperatures. 
2. This can be related to the rate of photosynthesis. 

Increasing concentration of Carbon Dioxide: 

1. Carbon dioxide is the substrate within photosynthesis. 
2. The rate of photosynthesis will increase therefore we'll have a higher yield up to a point. 

Increasing the temperature 

1. Yield increases until we reach the optimum temperature. 
2. increasing temperature in a glasshouse also has other effects such as avoiding frost damage and provide  constant temperature, contributing to the yield growth.